Purposeful construction of training activities for middle and long distance runners
For the sphere of physical education and sports training at the present stage, a target approach is becoming characteristic, the essence of which is to orient training in accordance with its goal. Now the target approach is at the stage of formation.
Analyzing the interrelationships between the nature of competitive and training motor activity of the competition, V. M. Zatsiorsky (1961) came to the conclusion that in order to form a certain coordination in a person, it is necessary to put him in such conditions that would require the manifestation of this coordination. With real management of the training process, sports achievements, according to Yu. V. Verkhoshansky (1966), are the product of the purposeful and adaptive activity of the organism, determined by specific conditions accompanying the process of solving a motor problem.
A number of authors believe that exercises that are similar to competitions in terms of motor qualities, kinematic and dynamic characteristics, and the peculiarities of energy supply that are manifested can be effective (N. I. Vovkiv, 1968; L. L. Lukashov, 1972; Yu. V. Melkov, 1973, etc.).
The possibility of increasing the effectiveness of the training process through the use of scientific research data directly on the motor activity of the competition is also indicated by A. Ts. Puny (1970) - in psychological aspects, V. S. Rodichenko (1972) - organizational, Yu. A. Talalaev (1974) - social aspects.
In the literature, one can find recommendations to build the preliminary training stage in accordance with the conditions and state of the organism during the competition. For example, microcycles are built in accordance with the program of the main competitions of the season, which creates conditions for the formation of a stable dynamic stereotype - in terms of the necessary rhythm of increasing the performance of athletes.
Giving a philosophical justification for the target approach in sports training, A. A. Novikov and R. A. Pyloyan (1976) believe that if it is considered methodologically correct to study the root cause in the cause-effect relationships of phenomena, then in the analysis of the relationships between the training process and the competition, one should start from the competition, since it was it, in their opinion, that gave rise to sports training, and not vice versa, and therefore the results of the analysis of the competition activity should be the starting point of the training process.
E. R. Andris, R. G. Arzumanov and M. A. Godik (1979) write that in order to select training exercises, it is first necessary to determine the structure of the competition movement and to identify which of the components of this structure and how closely they are related to the sports result.
Violation of the adequate ratio between and training exercises of the competition reduces the effectiveness of the increase in results in the selected sport. Thus, according to M. I. Maisuradze (1962) and I. E. Mülberg (1971), regular use of running load negatively affected the growth of sports achievements in weightlifters in their special movements of competitions. According to A. N. Vorobyov (1972), these facts are explained by the specificity of the type of muscular activity, which is reflected in both the functional and morphological features of the athlete's body. Each specific type of sport forms a special morphofunctional harmony. The principle of goal reflection is more adequate to the essence of the problem being developed. It is more differentiated, versatile allows us to understand the patterns of the body's reflective activity when forming specific varieties of the motor functional system. Being universal, it creates a reliable methodological basis for the theory and methodology of purposeful construction of training motor activity. Due to the fact that a living organism is a system that adequately reflects in its functions and structures not any, but absolutely specific parameters of external interactions, therefore, optimal training actions should be based on modeling in them the parameters of precisely those movements for which training is carried out as a goal. For athletes, this is the motor activity of the competition, which is the direct goal of the training process.
This provision gives grounds for putting forward the principle of goal modeling as a fundamental methodological platform for the process of purposeful construction of training motor activity.
Management of human physical development and its motor training, like any other creative transforming human activity, requires the solution of two organically interconnected, but relatively independent issues. One of them is the setting of an objective goal, that is, the determination of the optimal level of characteristics of the state of the organism and, first of all, its motor abilities, which must be achieved by the required point in time. The other is the method of implementing the goal.
The goal of developing human motor abilities, before becoming the main regulatory element in the purposeful construction of the training process, must itself be clearly defined, studied and objectively justified.
If in some cases motor skills, habits and qualities have the property of "positive transfer" of different types of movements (with a similar composition and mode of operation of motor functional systems), then in other cases such "affinity" is absent or insignificant, and then motor functional systems with different active composition and mode of activity are necessary for the implementation of these movements. In such cases, especially when there is intense motor activity (this applies primarily to sports training), competition arises in the body for the energy-substance adaptive resource, which at each stage of its development and at each given moment has an absolutely certain opportunity. Therefore, the body is not able to simultaneously ensure the development to a high level of many skills, habits and physical qualities. It follows that achieving a high level of improvement of motor function, especially considering the relative limitation of the organism's adaptive resource, requires a predominant concentration of this resource on specific, namely specialized movements and, therefore, on specific motor functional systems implementing these movements.
The principle of energy reflection of the goal. The basis of any type of motor activity is the transformation of forms of motion of matter, the universal measure of which is energy. Therefore, the energy characteristics of the target (competition) motor activity must first of all be reflected in exercises and training programs. This will allow the organism, by developing a complex system of conditioned reflexes, to establish the energy patterns of target exercises and, thus, to know in advance how much energy-substance substrates are needed, and to optimally organize internal adaptation processes.
In response to regular external motor energy effects, the body creates an adequate energy impulse, producing over time a certain rhythm of assimilation-dissimilation processes (primarily this refers to the splitting and synthesis of ATP - a universal source of energy in living cells), in which the criterion of their sufficiency is the energy parameters of target exercises.
Modeling target energy parameters in the training process will allow the body to more specifically concentrate its adaptations and achieve on this basis a greater adapted effect.
As a result of concentrating its adaptive efforts on specific (target) energy parameters of competitive exercises, the body is able to achieve a higher level of motor manifestations than when dispersing its adaptive resources across many energy parameters of training exercises.
The absence of clear energy guidelines and their systematic modeling in training inevitably leads to some indirectness of the body's adaptive reactions.
Thus, the requirement for systematic modeling in training of energy parameters of target (competition) motor activity can be called the principle of energy reflection of the goal.
If the functional resources of the organism are sufficient to perform the required movement, then this motor goal can be realized immediately, as needed. However, in physical education, and especially in sports training, the target motor setting, as a rule, is of a higher order compared to the existing level. Therefore, the target motor activity, naturally, cannot be performed in the present tense in its entirety - according to all the main parameters.
The resolution of this contradiction is possible with a compromise approach, namely: through differentiated modeling of the goal according to the main parameters with a restriction of any of them, which will allow to simplify the nature of the target motor activity accordingly. The target level of motor activity must be divided into the main parameters, which should be selectively and in a certain order limited, so that in this form the target exercise becomes available for execution in the training process.
But in sports, an undifferentiated, full-fledged goal is needed. The path to it lies through the process of integration. The training process as a whole should consist of the integration of various options for "simplified" goals (exercises) built according to the principle of differentiated reflection of the goal, in order to ensure the modeling of all the main parameters of the goal - spatial, temporal and energy.
Considering, however, that the differentiated modeling of the target motor mode in training is inseparable from the process of integrating differentiated elements of the goal, it seems logical to formulate a single position on the main method of building training motor activity - the principle of differentiation - integration of the goal.
The lack of clear objective methods for building targeted training and its criteria is the reason that gives rise to the most different forms and degrees of approximation and unregulatedness in the development of human motor abilities.
For example, a sprinter athlete is being trained. Traditionally, aerobic, mixed and predominantly anaerobic stages of training are distinguished in the training process (to which there are no fundamental objections), but at the same time, training is built in accordance with the stages in such a way that it first intensively and purposefully turns a sprinter into a stayer, then at the next stage it transforms him into a middle-distance runner and, finally, into a sprinter. And as a result of such training, when there is no true scientific understanding of how the specifics of a particular sports specialization should be reflected in the specifics of the training process, the sprinter also becomes a "little" stayer. But this does not pass without a trace, on the contrary, it limits his athletic growth in the chosen specialization. Let us give a fairly widespread example of untargeted training. It distinguishes a number of consecutive stages with each of them aimed at the predominant development of some physical qualities (strength, endurance, etc.). At the same time, it is assumed that these qualities will be developed beyond their target levels at “their” stages, so that they do not have time to significantly “decrease” before the competition. Such a construction of the training process is clearly irrational. The question is, why spend significant training efforts and time on developing something that will be lost later? And, in addition, there is a certain approximation in training management: how much should one “overdevelop” this or that physical quality at the stage with its predominant focus, so that it reaches the level of the required target value before the competition?
In accordance with the proposed approach, at each stage and throughout the entire preparation process, in exercises and in general in training programs, nothing other than the competition activity of the target level is always reproduced in all its main parameters, but only in varying degrees of “ease”. With this approach to building a training process, each subsequent stage differs from the previous one only in a greater degree of "complexity" of the goal in training exercises and programs, which as a result ensures the specificity of the body's adaptation, aimed at the parameters of the target motor activity, making the training process optimally balanced and purposeful.
THE MAIN METHOD OF DOSING TRAINING MOTOR ACTIVITY
When comparing training motor activity with competition, the most important feature of the former stands out, which is characterized by the following.
Firstly, immediately before performing a sports exercise at a competition, the athlete's body is characterized by minor manifestations of motor activity with a relatively low level of energy expenditure, as well as a feeling of good recovery from previous work (warm-up), which is provided by specially organized rest between the competition performance and the warm-up.
Secondly, the beginning of performing a sports exercise at a competition is accompanied by a sharp increase in the intensity of energy expenditure, which is due to a sharp increase in the level of functioning of muscles and other components of the body that ensure their work.
Thirdly, with the end of performing a sports exercise at a competition, the intensity of the athlete's motor activity drops sharply and energy expenditure, naturally, also quickly declines.
Taking into account all this, a competitive exercise (target) can be considered as a kind of "energy surge", or energy impulse, which manifests itself against the background of relatively low energy expenditure.
It follows that, guided by the principle of reflecting the goal, the listed features of competitive exercises must be adequately reflected in the methods of performing training motor activity. On this basis, it is logical to come to the position that the main part of the load in training programs should be carried out in the form of certain energy impulses with minimal motor activity (or relative passivity) in the period between them, with the achievement of a subjectively assessed feeling of good recovery at this time.
The expressed method of dosing the training load can be called impulse. It brings the nature of training motor activity closer to competition (target), creating adequate conditions for modeling the process of physiological incorporation, which is the most important attribute of motor activity in sports and competitions. In addition, this method, due to the minimum motor activity between exercises-energy pulses, creates better conditions for recovery, contributing to its acceleration and thereby increasing the efficiency of using training time. Finally, at the same time, a high degree of purposefulness in spending the body's energy potential is achieved (only on exercises-energy pulses that simulate the goal).
The pulse method should objectively have the rights of a universal method of dosing the training load at all levels: from the level of modeling exercises in training, through the fragmentation of the latter into cycles, where impulsivity should be manifested in a significant, clearly expressed variability of the training load, acting as one of the fundamental requirements for its construction.
The pulse training method should objectively be highly effective, and therefore dominant in the training process, in contrast to the averaged (uniform, relatively smoothed) nature of energy expenditure when performing a training load, which, on the one hand, cannot stimulate the body's adaptation to high levels of motor activity, and on the other - ensure it.